This paper was written as part of my thanatology degree
Class: Afterlife Beliefs Across Cultures
Submission date: April 10, 2023
We live in ordinary reality, a reality we are comfortable with, a mundane reality full of trips to the grocery store, paying taxes, and other ordinary activities. However, there is another reality beyond the edges of our consciousness called nonordinary reality, which is a dimension outside, but parallel to, the confines of ordinary awareness (Bowles, 2014). Shamans deliberately travel to nonordinary reality and, based on stories of near-death experiences (NDEs), there is a belief among some scholars that people experiencing a near death experience also journey to nonordinary reality (Harner M., 1987, pp. 5-6;Ring, 1990, pp. 208-209).
Although shamanic journeys and the experiences of people who have near death experiences, known as NDErs, are similar there are key differences. In the remainder of this paper, I will define the shamanic and NDE experiences, and explore similarities and differences in how shamans and NDErs are called to, enter, experience, heal in, and, exit nonordinary reality.
Shamanism and Near Death Experiences Defined
Shamanism Defined
Shamans are men and women who travel to other worlds using what Eliade (1972) termed “techniques of ecstasy” that other healers, such as magicians and medicine men, do not utilize (p. 6-7). Shamans heal the living and the dead through journeys to nonordinary reality. They heal the living by performing soul retrievals where they reconnect people with pieces of their soul that have been lost or stolen and by extracting energy thrown at them by accident or ill will (Winkleman 2017, 52-53). They heal the dead by serving as psychopomps and accompanying their souls to the “Realm of Shadows” (Eliade 1972, 8). They also heal their communities by bringing knowledge and mediating between the spirits and humanity (Eliade, 1972, p. 233).
Although the word shaman has Russian origins and there are some who argue that the only true shamans are those from that region, most anthropologists base the determination as to whether a culture is shamanic or not on whether they contain certain characteristics. These include altered states of consciousness; an initiatory crisis involving a death and rebirth experience; the belief in illness as caused by soul loss or the intrusion of objects; and visionary experiences (Winkleman 2017, 52-53).
Shamanic practices have been found in cultures around the world including Australia, Laos, Mongolia, Korea, the Americas, and Russia. Although many believe that shamanism is a relic of the past, shamanic practices continue to exist today both in unbroken traditions from indigenous cultures and in reconstituted neoshamanism. Shamans deal with matters of the soul and spirit, but shamanism is not a religion in and of itself but is a spiritual practice that is incorporated in religions around the world including Tibetan Buddhism, Christianity, Judaism and other religions (Vitebsky, 1995).
Near Death Experiences Defined
Similar to shamanism, near death experiences are a universal phenomenon and have been reported throughout history and across cultures. Shushan (2020) writes of NDEs occurring in 7th century China, 18th century Siberia, and the 21st century. Just as shamanism is a spiritual experience that knows no religious bounds, near death experiences happen to people of all religious persuasions, and to those who believe in no religion at all (p. 19). There also seems to be no correlation between near death experiences and age, social standing, educational level, or income (Talbot, 1991, p. 240). Ordinary people as well as luminaries such as Thomas Edison and Ernest Hemingway have reported near death experiences (Filippo, 2006).
Although every near death experience is unique, the Near Death Experience Content (NDE-C) scale provides five factors containing 20 unique characteristics that NDEs frequently include. The five main factors are: having a sense of being beyond the normal; a sense of harmony and peacefulness; insights into one’s life and one’s future; a sense of reaching a border, which can include a knowing that one has died and a sense of nonexistence; and a sense of reaching or passing through a tunnel or gateway (Martial, et al., 2020, pp. 8-9)
Calls to Nonordinary Reality
One of the key differences between shamans and those who experience near death experiences is that shamans are called to nonordinary reality and undergo initiatory rituals before journeying into other realms. However, those who have near death experiences are not given any time to prepare but are plunged into nonordinary reality after their bodies die or are close to death. However, while there is no prior call to an NDE, there is some evidence that a near death experience may be a call to shamanism.
How Shamans are Called to Nonordinary Reality
The path to shamanism varies by culture as in some cultures the role is hereditary, in others it is passed to an initiate chosen by an older shaman, and in still others it is believed that the spirits choose shamans by giving them an initiatory challenge, such as physical or mental illness, that they can choose to accept or refuse. If they choose to refuse the challenge, the spirits will continue to push until they eventually say yes (Vitebsky 1995, 57). It is through this initiatory illness that shamans obtain their power (Kinsley 1996, 14).
After accepting their calling as a shaman, shamans in many cultures go on a solitary journey or vision quest to meet their spirit guides. Sometimes these quests lead the neophyte shaman into the wilderness or the mountains. Many initiatory shamanic journeys involve a symbolic death and letting go of old personality and character traits that no longer serve the individual. Becoming and being a shaman is a difficult path and many shamans would not have embarked upon the path if the gods had not insisted. Shamans are often known as wounded healers due to the experiences they have had to endure to become shamans. The challenges that a shaman endures leads them to experience a profound compassion for others. (Ingerman and Wesselman, 2010, 5).
Near Death Experiences as Initiatory Call for Shamans
A core component shamanism, according to Winkelman (2012), is an initiatory experience that includes a death and rebirth experience (p. 52). This death and rebirth experience may include visions of death and dismemberment (Jokic, 2008, p. 39). There are stories of shamanic initiation that are very similar to near death experiences. A Yakut legend recounts that shamanic initiates die and battle the soul of their adversary in nonordinary reality. A story from a Samoyed shaman tells of neophyte shamans lying unconscious for several days while their spirits journey to the underworld. The Buryat culture has stories of sickness-dreams among shamanic candidates where candidates’ souls leave their bodies and journey (Eliade, 1972, pp. 33-42). In a more modern-day case of a near death experience, Green (1998) recounts the story of Mary who had a near death experience and afterward as able to connect with and gain guidance from the spirit world.
In reading stories that are classified as near death experiences, there are similar to the initiatory experiences of shamans. Thespesius died in 81 CE and spent three days in nonordinary reality where he was shown worlds of reward and punishment and was inspired to change his life for the better. Similarly, a Spanish monk named Peter died in 581 CE and was shown the torments of hell and was told by an angel to live a better life (Shushan, 2022, pp. 24-25). These experiences seem similar to the initiatory death and rebirth experiences of shamans and it could be that both Thespesius and Peter returned to live a better that life that included additional shamanic journeys to nonordinary reality.
One of the grislier components of a shamanic initiation is visions and dreams of being dismembered or of being a skeleton. In one graphic description from Yakut, a shamanic candidate has visions of dying, being cut into pieces, his bones scraped clean, and his eyes being torn from his sockets. After his body is dismembered, it is put back together and the pieces fastened together with iron (Eliade, 1972, p. 36). Similar to shamanic initiatory experiences, there are near death experiences where a person experiences the breakdown of their physical body. In a legend from Koita a man returned to his body after it had begun to decay (Shushan, 2022, p. 121). In another story from Hawaii, a man returned to return to his body because it had begun to decay and smell bad (Shushan, 2022, p. 110). Although there is clearly a difference between deliberate dismemberment and natural decay, the similarity is that both shamanic initiates and NDErs were forced to confront their bodies in less than perfect conditions and both returned to ordinary reality after having confronted their own mortality.
Entering Nonordinary Reality
Nonordinary reality is typically considered to include the lower world, the middle world, and the upper world. The lower world is similar to the world we live in, but it may be populated by mystical creatures like dragons and fairies. It is the place where our ancestors are thought to live. The middle world is the spiritual shadow of the world we inhabit. And the upper world is a place of celestial beings and higher consciousness (Harner M., 1990). Although Shamans can choose to enter the lower, the middle, or the upper world, based on descriptions of NDEs, it appears that NDErs typically enter the middle or lower worlds.
How Shamans Enter Nonordinary Reality
To journey to nonordinary reality, shamans first enter an altered state of consciousness. Shamans prepare for this altered state of consciousness in a variety of ways including fasting, water deprivation, extreme exercise, celibacy, sleep deprivation, or social isolation (Winkelman M, 2013, pp. 48-49). This altered state of consciousness can be entered through drumming, singing, chanting, or ecstatic dancing. In some cultures, psychoactive substances such as peyote are used. During altered states of consciousness or journeys, shamans are aware that their spirit has left their body and they know they have left ordinary reality behind (Eliade, 1972).
The rituals used to induce the altered state of consciousness vary by culture. For instance, Bayar Odun, a hereditary shaman from Mongolia, enters an altered state of consciousness by first bowing to the four directions, then drums and chants until she enters the state of ecstasy required for journeys to other lands (Tedlock, 2005, pp. 95-96). Ostyak shamans enter a shamanic state by first fasting all day, then eating three to seven psychedelic mushrooms to induce a deep sleep during which they will journey to nonordinary reality (Eliade, 1972, pp. 220-221).
Once a shaman leaves ordinary reality and enters nonordinary reality, he will enter the lower, the middle, or the upper world. The entrance to nonordinary reality is typically a place that exists in both ordinary and nonordinary reality. For instance, Native American shamans in California used a hollow tree trunk or a hot springs as an entrance to the lower world while the Zuni people of North America used a hole in the ground to access the lower world (Harner, 1990, pp. 35-26). Access to the upper world is typically through climbing a tree or a ladder (Eliade, 1972) and the middle world, which represents the spiritual side of ordinary reality, can be accessed by shifting consciousness the spiritual dimensions of ordinary reality (Terravera, n.d.). Shamans typically describe entering nonordinary reality through a tunnel, which seems to expand or contract as necessary (Harner, 1990).
Near Death Journeys to Nonordinary Reality
Although every near death experience is unique, The NDE-C scale lists three characteristics that are directly related to entering nonordinary reality and that directly correspond with shamanic experiences: having an out-of-body experience; having the sensation of leaving the earthly realm; and seeing or entering a gateway. (Martial, et al., 2020).
NDErs from many cultures and many times include stories of entering nonordinary reality by leaving one’s body and the earthly realm during near death experiences. In 203 C.E., Vibia Perpetua and Saturus had a shared near death experience while awaiting execution. After suffering from extreme deprivation, Saturus wrote that they had died and were being carried east by angels toward a bright light (Shushan, 2022, pp. 55-56). A Maori man reported that his aunt had had an out of body experience where she left ordinary reality by climbing down a vine and then flew back to her body (Shushan, 2022, p. 116). A 19th century legend from Oahu tells of Kane who left the earthly realm for a land of abundance and joy (Shushan, 2022, p. 110). Although some NDErs report seeing their body immediately after leaving, other NDErs have reported looking down upon their decomposing corpses (Shushan, 2022, pp. 111,119). In a more recent case, Mary, who was mentioned above, was in a severe automobile accident in 1992 and she reported leaving her body and looking down to see her body on the ground (Green, 1998).
The sensation of traveling through a tunnel is another characteristic that shamans and NDErs experience. Two recent NDErs experienced traveling through a tunnel into a light filled space. In 2020, a case of Covid-19 brought Randy Schiefer to the brink of death. He was in a medically induced coma when his consciousness traveled through a tunnel to a beautiful room filled with love and light (Hale, 2022). Our 1992 accident victim, Mary, also traveled through a tunnel to a realm of light (Green, 2001).
Experiencing Nonordinary Reality
After entering nonordinary reality, shamans and NDErs may encounter a reality that looks very similar to everyday reality (the middle world) or a world filled with celestial beings, dragons, and the spirits of the dead.
Shaman’s Experience of Nonordinary Reality
Shamans navigate nonordinary reality based on knowledge provided by their teachers and knowledge gained through their own journeys (Eliade, 1972). One reason that shamans always enter nonordinary reality through the same reference point is that by doing so they can build a map of their journeys (Hirsch, n.d.). In some instances, shamans are also guided by power animals. During their visits to nonordinary reality, shamans may encounter the spirits of the departed, demons, angels, and other otherworldly beings (Eliade, 1972).
My Shamanic Experiences
Nonordinary reality is something that can seem fantastical to those who have not experienced it, but my own experiences in nonordinary reality through shamanic journeying have helped me to see that there may be more to life than the ordinary. My first journey to nonordinary reality occurred during a guided meditation at a workshop. This experience led me to seek out more information about journeying and shamanism and led me to The Way of the Shaman. Drumming has been a traditional way to reach nonordinary reality for shamans across the centuries (Eliade, 1972) and Harner recommended purchasing a recording of drumming with a rapid beat at the end serving as a callback feature (Harner M. , 1987, p. 145).
Caves have long served as the starting point for shamanic journeys into the underworld (Eliade, 1972) (Harner M. , 1987) and Harner suggested visualizing and entering a cave that exists in ordinary reality. I chose to use Mammoth Cave as my entry into the underworld and as I listened to the beat of the drum, I visualized walking into the cave.
As I entered the cave, I realized it was different than the times I had visited in ordinary reality where there is simply a great rotunda with numerous passageways. In nonordinary reality, there is an island surrounded by a stream. On the island there is a pregnant goddess who whispered to me to lay down all my troubles and burdens. Once I put down my burdens, she provided guidance and pointed me toward a pathway. As I walked, I realized that in nonordinary reality I was able to walk through walls and that I intuitively knew which direction to take. I received messages from spirit the first time I visited nonordinary reality. My experiences in nonordinary reality are similar to those described by both ancient (Eliade, 1972) and modern (Harner M. 1987) shamans as I entered nonordinary reality, encountered spirits, and was provided guidance.
I have also had soul retrievals that have brought me healing. One of the hallmarks of shamanism is a belief that illness can be caused by soul loss and that healing can be brought about by soul retrieval (Winkleman, 2012, p. 52). During a soul retrieval, shamans journey into the underworld where they search for pieces of an individual’s soul that have been lost (Eliade, 1972, p. 300). During a typical journey, the shaman enters nonordinary reality, meets his spirit helpers who help direct him to the soul parts that have been lost, and he helps them understand why it is important to return. The shaman will typically blow the retrieved soul parts back into the individual. One the shaman has returned to ordinary reality; he will tell his client about the journey. People who have undergone soul retrievals typically feel more whole and restored afterwards (Lindquist, 2004). My soul retrieval followed a similar trajectory and when my shaman returned to ordinary reality, he described a journey that was typical for a soul retrieval and he told me things he would have had no way of knowing.
Near Death Experiences in Nonordinary Reality
While NDErs do not have prior knowledge of nonordinary reality or the ability to rely on maps created by others, there experiences in nonordinary reality are similar to that of shamans in several key ways as evidenced by characteristics of the NDE-C: they have an enhanced sense of understanding, they encounter beings from other realms or dead relatives, and they know things they could have no way of knowing in ordinary reality (Martial, et al., 2020).
In 81 C.E. Thespesius died and returned to life three days later. Like many NDErs he reported leaving his body and traveled to a place of stars where he met deceased relatives and one of these relative took him on a tour of places of both punishment and reward (Shushan, 2022, pp. 24-25). In another example of encountering spirits of the dead, Quetzalpetlatl died in the 15th century and was led to a joyous land of the dead where she met dead relatives and was given the power to heal and told to return to her people (Shushan, 2022, p. 54). One NDEr who was given information he could not have known through any other means was a Mormon man who died in 1923 and encountered his dead daughter who told him that it was not his time because his son, his mother, and his wife had to die before him. He returned to Earth and his family died in exactly that sequence (Shushan, 2022, p. 54).
In a case that blends the near-death experience with shamanism, Mary, our accident victim, encountered the spirit of her dead friend Frank during her near-death experience. He told her that she had to return to the land of the living, but through dreams and other experiences he continued to guide and help her. In one incident he told her where to find something she had lost over a year ago and there was no way other than through her otherworldly encounter that she could have known where it was (Green, 2001).
Healing in Nonordinary Reality
Nonordinary reality is a place where the normal rules of healing do not apply. While both shamans and NDErs can find healing in nonordinary reality, there are key differences. Shamans typically heal others or their communities, while the healing brought by NDErs is mostly self-healing.
Shamanic Healing in Nonordinary Reality
Shamans are healers who believe that illnesses can be caused by both ordinary and spiritual means including soul loss, spiritual attacks by spirits or sorcerers, and the intrusion of objects (Winkleman 2013, 52-53). Shamans are also diagnosticians and typically diagnose patients either by reviewing their physical symptoms or by journeying to nonordinary reality to diagnose the patient (Kinsley 1996, 13). Typical shamanic diagnoses of living individuals are of soul loss that would be healed by a soul retrieval or the intrusion of a foreign object that would be healed by an extraction (Hultzkrantz 1981, 90).
Soul loss occurs when pieces of a person’s soul are frightened away, are taken by a spirit, or leave voluntarily. Soul loss can occur when a person undergoes trauma such as surgery, shaming, bullying, betrayal, or accidents (Wahbeh, et al. 2017, 209). To retrieve the pieces of a person’s soul, a shaman may first call to the soul to entice it to come back, but if the soul refuses to return, the shaman will go into the underworld to retrieve the soul piece and return it to the person’s body (Eliade, 1972, pp. 217-219). An extraction is necessary when dense energies caused by sorcery or unconscious or conscious thoughts take up residence in the body and interfere with a person’s normal functioning (Skelton 2010). These intrusions can be extracted physically by sucking it out, blowing it out, or massaging it away. When physically extracted, these objects take the form of a pebble, a feather, or a similar small object (Hultzkrantz 1981, 89). Modern day shamans are more likely to use vocals, drumming, or similar methods to remove intrusions (Wahbeh, et al. 2017, 209).
Shamans also serve the dead by acting as psychopomps and escorting the souls of the dead, particularly those who do not realize they are dead, to the spirit world. Shamans fill this role because they are familiar with the road to the underworld. In some cultures as the Lolo, the shaman leads all the dead to their final abode, but in other cultures the shaman only fulfills the role of psychopomp for the dead who continue to haunt the land of the living (Eliade 1972, 209). Modern day shamanic healers sometimes fulfill the role of psychopomp within a hospice setting, particularly if spirits are trapped in the land of the living (Bryan 2013, 182-183).
Shamans not only heal individuals, as community leaders they also work to heal their communities by helping hunters find prey and interceding on behalf of their community with the Gods. One example of how shamans help to heal community is the shamans of the Inuit people. For the Inuit, shamans were responsible for interceding with Sedna, mother of the sea beasts, when she withheld her sea creatures from their hunters because she was offended by the villagers’ actions. When it became clear that Sedna was offended, a shaman journeyed to Sedna’s underground home where she would share the transgressions of the community. Once the shaman returned from his journey, there would be a group confession as people shared how they had broken taboos with the community (Eliade 1972, 297).
Healing brought by Near Death Experiences
While shamans heal others and their communities, most healing that occurs as a result of an NDE is self-healing. One typical characteristic of an NDE is a life review and during these life reviews some NDErs see the error of their ways and change how they live (Martial, et al., 2020). One person who repented after an NDE was Thespesuius, a wicked and lewd man, who underwent an NDE in 81 C.E. and transformed into an honest and devout man. Similarly in 581 C.E. a Spanish monk died and saw men suffering the torments of hell. An angel sent him back to his body with instructions to live a better life (Shushan, 2022, pp. 24-25). Modern day NDErs also report positive life changes. After Schiefer’s 2020 NDE, he became more open with his family about his emotions and dedicated himself more fully to his Christian faith (Hale, 2022).
Like shamans, NDErs sometimes return with skills or messages that can help heal their communities. Quetzalpetlatl, who underwent an NDE in the 15th century, returned from nonordinary reality with the ability to heal the sick. Similarly, English astronomer and explorer Thomas Hariot reported accounts by the Algonquin people of two men who had near death experiences, but returned to provide guidance to their people on how to avoid a hellish fate (Shushan, 2022, pp. 24-26).
Exiting Nonordinary Reality
While shamans have a more clearly defined and similar path to entering nonordinary reality, NDErs have more defined paths out of nonordinary reality as most are either told to go back or are forced back into their bodies.
How Shamans Return from Nonordinary Reality
The return to ordinary reality depends very much on the culture. Modern day shamans typically return when their assistant begins drumming rapidly to signal that it is time for them to return (Harner, 1990). However, indigenous shamans return to ordinary reality in a variety of ways. The Inuit sense a shaman’s return by shaking in the floor and walls. There is also a belief among the Inuit that eating food in nonordinary reality will make it hard to return to ordinary reality (Eliade, 1972, p. 288).
Returning from Near Death Experiences
People who have near death experiences often feel a sense of great peace and happiness in nonordinary reality (Martial, et al., 2020) and are often reluctant to leave. In many instances, NDErs are told that it is not their time and that they must return to ordinary reality. Mary, who had an NDE after a car accident, had a second NDE after she was hospitalized. During the first NDE she went into white light, but her friend Frank told her that she must return. She willingly returned at the end of her first NDE, but she was more reluctant to return after her second NDE and only agreed to return after Frank showed her all the prayers she had ever prayed (Green, 2001). In other instances, people return because they have been told they need to be there for their relatives or that it is not their time to die (Shushan, 2022). In some older stories of near death experiences, NDErs who are reluctant to return to their bodies, are forced back into their bodies by the spirits or by shamans (Shushan, 2022).
Conclusion
While there are important differences between shamanic and near death experiences, there are enough similarities to conclude that there is a high probability that the nonordinary reality experienced by shamans and NDErs is the same. The key difference between shamans and people having near death experiences how they enter and exit nonordinary reality. Shamans, deliberately enter nonordinary reality by entering an altered state of consciousness. While in nonordinary reality, they are able to navigate non-ordinary reality to complete healing tasks such as soul retrievals and guiding souls. Shamans also choose when to exit nonordinary reality. (Winkleman, 2012). In contrast, NDErs are thrust into nonordinary reality after their bodies die. In some NDEs they are guided by spirits or they wander through the afterlife, but they do not usually have the same sense of purpose that shamans have (Shushan, 2022).
While there are key differences between shamanic journeys and NDEs, there are far more similiarites that differences. Both NDErs and Shamans descriptions of nonordinary reality are similar, both recount entering nonordinary reality through a tunnel or other gateway, both are aware that they are out of their bodies, and both are able to travel through nonordinary reality similar to how they navigate in this plane. Another commonality is encountering spirits in nonordinary reality who provide guidance. One profound similarity between shamans and NDErs is that nonordinary reality is a healing space for both in many cases. Shamans enter non (Shushan, 2022)ordinary reality to heal others via soul retriavals, extractions, or other methods (Winkleman, 2012). NDErs often come back from nonordinary reality changed, either having learned the error of their ways or coming back with skills to help others.
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